Click on the link below for pictures of Fungi:
http://mycorrhizas.info/ecmf.html
Lecture about Fungi:
Thursday, November 17, 2011
Thursday, October 20, 2011
Cell Division
Cell Division Functions in Reproduction, Growth, and Repair
Cell division involves the distribution of identical genetic material, DNA, to two daughters cells. What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed along, without dilution or error, from one generation to the next.
Core Concepts:
- All Organisms Consist of Cells and Arise from Preexisting Cells
- Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
- Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction.
- The Cell Cycle Represents All Phases in the Life of a Cell
- DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis, so that all daughter cells receive the same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
- The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when molecular signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
- Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells
- Unregulated Cell Division Can Lead to Cancer
- Cell-cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis occur only when conditions are favorable and the process is working correctly.Mutations in genes that encode cell-cycle proteins can lead to unregulated growth, resulting in tumor formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous cells to other organs.
Significance
Mitosis is important for the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell.Following are the occasions in the lives of organism where mitosis happens: Development and growth: The number of cells within an organism increase by mitosis. This is the basis of the development of a multicellular body from a single cell i.e., zygote and also the basis of the growth of a multicellular body.
Cell Replacement: In some parts of body, e.g. skin and digestive tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones. New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the cells being replaced. Similarly, RBCs have short life span (only about 4 months) and new RBCs are formed by mitosis.
Regeneration: Some organisms can regenerate their parts of bodies. The production of new cells is achieved by mitosis. For example; sea star regenerates its lost arm through mitosis.
Asexual Reproduction: Some organisms produce genetically similar offspring through asexual reproduction. For example; hydra reproduces asexually by budding. The cells at the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and form a mass called bud. Mitosis continues in the cells of bud and it grows into a new individual. The same division happens during asexual reproduction or vegetative propagationin plants.
Terminology for Mitosis:
- gene - basic unit of heredity; codes for a specific trait
- locus - the specific location of a gene on a chromosome (locus - plural loci)
- genome - the total hereditary endowment of DNA of a cell or organism
- somatic cell - all body cells except reproductive cells
- gamete - reproductive cells (i.e. sperm & eggs)
- chromosome - elongate cellular structure composed of DNA and protein - they are the vehicles which carry DNA in cells
- diploid (2n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented by two homologous chromosomes
- haploid (n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented by only one chromosome
- homologous chromosome - chromosome of the same size and shape which carry the same type of genes
- chromatid - one of two duplicated chromosomes connected at the centromere
- centromere - region of chromosome where microtubules attach during mitosis and meiosis
Chromosome structure
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Wednesday, October 19, 2011
Tuesday, October 11, 2011
Friday, September 30, 2011
Monday, September 26, 2011
Movements of Substances
2.4 Cell Membrane And Transport
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Transport of Materials across Cell Membranes
Passive transport means moving biochemicals and other atomic or molecular substances across membranes. Unlike active transport, this process does not involve chemical energy, because, unlike in an active transport, the transport across membrane is always coupled with the growth of entropy of the system. So passive transport is dependent on the permeability of the cell membrane, which, in turn, is dependent on the organization and characteristics of the membrane lipids and proteins. The four main kinds of passive transport are diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration and osmosis.
Simple Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of material from an area of high concentration to an area with lower concentration. The difference of concentration between the two areas is often termed as the concentration gradient, and diffusion will continue until this gradient has been eliminated. Since diffusion moves materials from an area of higher concentration to the lower, it is described as moving solutes "down the concentration gradient" (compared with active transport, which often moves material from area of low concentration to area of higher concentration, and therefore referred to as moving the material "against the concentration gradient").
Facilitated diffusion
Facilitated diffusion, also called carrier-mediated diffusion, is the movement of molecules across the cell membrane via special transport proteins that are embedded within the cellular membrane. Many large molecules, such as glucose, are insoluble in lipids and too large to fit through the membrane pores. Therefore, it will bind with its specific carrier proteins, and the complex will then be bonded to a receptor site and moved through the cellular membrane. Bear in mind, however, that facilitated diffusion is a passive process, and the solutes still move down the concentration gradient.
Filtration
Filtration is movement of water and solute molecules across the cell membrane due to hydrostatic pressure generated by the cardiovascular system. Depending on the size of the membrane pores, only solutes of a certain size may pass through it. For example, the membrane pores of the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys are very small, and only albumins, the smallest of the proteins, have any chance of being filtered through. On the other hand, the membrane pores of liver cells are extremely large, to allow a variety of solutes to pass through and be metabolized.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. The net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a solution of high water potential to an area of low water potential. A cell with a less negative water potential will draw in water but this depends on other factors as well such as solute potential (pressure in the cell e.g. solute molecules) and pressure potential (external pressure e.g. cell wall).
Active Tansport
Active transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient (from low to high concentration). In all cells, this is usually concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose, and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is termed primary active transport. Secondary active transport involves the use of an electrochemical gradient. Active transport uses energy, unlike passive transport, which does not use any type of energy. Active transport is a good example of a process for which cells require energy. Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants.
Specialized trans-membrane proteins recognize the substance and allows it access[1] (or, in the case of secondary transport, expend energy on forcing it) to cross the membrane when it otherwise would not, either because it is one to which the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane is impermeable or because it is moved in the direction of the concentration gradient. The last case, known as primary active transport, and the proteins involved in it as pumps, normally uses the chemical energy of ATP. The other cases, which usually derive their energy through exploitation of an electrochemical gradient, are known as secondary active transport and involve pore-forming proteins that form channels through the cell membrane.Sometimes the system transports one substance in one direction at the same time as cotransporting another substance in the other direction. This is called antiport.Symport is the name if two substrates are being transported in the same direction across the membrane. Antiport and symport are associated with secondary active transport, meaning that one of the two substances are transported in the direction of their concentration gradient utilizing the energy derived from the transport of the second substance (mostly Na+, K+ or H+) down its concentration gradient.
Particles moving from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration[2] (i.e., in the opposite direction as the concentration gradient) require specific trans-membrane carrier proteins. These proteins have receptors that bind to specific molecules (e.g., glucose) and thus transport them into the cell. Because energy is required for this process, it is known as 'active' transport. Examples of active transport include the transportation of sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell by the sodium-potassium pump. Active transport often takes place in the internal lining of the small intestine.
Plants need to absorb mineral salts from the soil, but these salts exist in very dilute solution. Active transport enables these cells to take up salts from this dilute solution against the direction of the concentration gradient.
Primary active transport, also called direct active transport, directly uses energy to transport molecules across a membrane.[3]
Most of the enzymes that perform this type of transport are transmembrane ATPases. A primary ATPase universal to all cellular life is the sodium-potassium pump, which helps to maintain the cell potential. Other sources of energy for Primary active transport are redox energy and photon energy (light). An example of primary active transport using Redox energy is the mitochondrial electron transport chain that uses the reduction energy of NADH to move protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. An example of primary active transport using light energy are the proteins involved in photosynthesis that use the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and also to create reduction power in the form of NADPH.
ATP utilizing Primary active transport types
(2) F-ATPase : mitochondrial ATP synthase, Chloroplast ATP synthase
(3) V-ATPase : vacuolar ATPase
(4) ABC (ATP Binding Cassette) transporter : MDR, CFTR, etc
Secondary active transport
secondary active transport
In secondary active transport or co-transport, uses energy to transport molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP; instead, the electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions out of the cell is used. [4]
Antiport
In antiport two species of ion or other solutes are pumped in opposite directions across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow from high to low concentration which yields the entropic energy to drive the transport of the other solute from a low concentration region to a high one. An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger or antiporter, which allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out.
Many cells also possess a calcium ATPase, which can operate at lower intracellular concentrations of calcium and sets the normal or resting concentration of this important second messenger. But the ATPase exports calcium ions more slowly: only 30 per second versus 2000 per second by the exchanger. The exchanger comes into service when the calcium concentration rises steeply or "spikes" and enables rapid recovery. This shows that a single type of ion can be transported by several enzymes, which need not be active all the time (constitutively), but may exist to meet specific, intermittent needs.
Symport
Symport uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to low concentration to move another molecule uphill from low concentration to high concentration (against its electrochemical gradient).
An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1, which co-transports one glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it imports into the cell. This symporter is located in the small intestines, trachea, heart, brain, testis, and prostate. It is also located in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys [5]. Its mechanism is exploited in glucose rehydration therapy and defects in SGLT1 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose, causing familial renal glucosuria[6].
Examples
- Water, ethanol, and chloroform exemplify simple molecules that do not require active transport to cross a membrane.
- Metal ions, such as Na+, K+, Mg2+, or Ca2+, require ion pumps or ion channels to cross membranes and distribute through the body
- The pump for sodium and potassium is called sodium-potassium pump or Na +/K+-ATPase
- In the epithelial cells of the stomach, gastric acid is produced by hydrogen potassium ATPase, an electrogenic pump[citation needed]
Endocytosis
Further information: Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in materials. The cellular membrane folds around the desired materials outside the cell.[7] The ingested particle becomes trapped within a pouch, vacuole or inside the cytoplasm. Often enzymes from lysosomes are then used to digest the molecules absorbed by this process.
Biologists distinguish two main types of endocyctosis: pinocytosis and phagocytosis.[8]
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